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Differences in Associations Between Autonomic Nervous System Activity and Psychopathic Traits Across Stress Paradigms and Measures

Vietto, N., Armstrong, T.A., Schroll, D.M. et al. Differences in Associations Between Autonomic Nervous System Activity and Psychopathic Traits Across Stress Paradigms and Measures. J Psychopathol Behav Assess 47, 2 (2025).

Published onJan 22, 2025
Differences in Associations Between Autonomic Nervous System Activity and Psychopathic Traits Across Stress Paradigms and Measures
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Abstract

Despite evidence that associations between autonomic nervous system (ANS) responsivity and psychopathic traits vary across stress task only a single study has systematically assessed cross-task differences in associations. To advance this limited literature the current study randomized subjects into either a noise blast (countdown) task or a social stressor speech task (SSST). Analyses tested associations between ANS (heart rate, skin conductance) and measures of psychopathic traits (Self-Report Psychopathy Scale-III (SRP-III), Inventory of Callous-Unemotional (ICU) traits, Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP), Sensation Seeking Scale – Form V (SSS-V)). Baseline skin conductance was negatively associated with Erratic Lifestyle (SRP-III) and SSS-V total scores. Heart rate during the SSST had a negative association with Callous Affect (SRP). During the countdown task there was a negative association between skin conductance in anticipation of signaled noise blasts and Interpersonal Manipulation (SRP), and a negative association between change in heart rate after noise blasts in unsignaled trials and Erratic Lifestyle (SRP) and Factor 2 Psychopathy (LSRP).

1. Introduction

Psychopathy is characterized by a cluster of personality traits including a lack of affect, egocentricity, manipulativeness, and a tendency toward risky and antisocial behavior (Cleckley, 1941; De Brito et al., 2021; Hare & Neumann, 2008). Elevated levels of psychopathic traits are associated with a variety of negative consequences including homelessness, drug dependence, suicide attempts, and criminal justice system involvement (Coid et al., 2009; Keihl & Hoffman, 2011). The negative consequences of psychopathy have motivated considerable research into its’ antecedents. This work indicates psychopathy is influenced by genetic, biological, and social psychological risk factors (DiBrito et al., 2021). Work attempting to specify biological markers of risk for psychopathy includes a group of studies showing that autonomic nervous system (ANS) hypoactivity is associated with increased psychopathic traits (Glenn & Raine, 2008; Kiehl, 2006). Early work in this area documented ANS hypoactivity in response to experimental stimuli among psychopaths and suggested ANS hypoactivity may result from a lack of fear, anxiety, or apprehension (Hare, 1978; Lykken, 1957). Alternatively, ANS hypoactivity may indicate an unpleasant physiological state leading to the development of psychopathic traits and increased antisocial behaviors as a result of efforts to relieve discomfort (Quay, 1965; Raine, 2002).

While summaries of work on the association between ANS activity and psychopathy commonly point to ANS activity as a biological substrate in psychopathy, cross study comparisons and meta-analyses indicate that associations between ANS activity and psychopathy vary substantially across the methodological characteristics of studies including the experimental paradigm used to illicit change in ANS activity (de Looff et al., 2021; Dindo & Fowles, 2011). However, the specific influence of methodology on associations between psychopathy and ANS activity results remains largely speculative as studies rarely systematically explore the influence of methodological differences on associations between ANS activity and the traits that comprise psychopathy.

The ANS includes the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems (SNS, PNS; Gabella, 2001). The sympathetic nervous system is responsible for a variety of physiological and psychological changes in support of the body’s response to stress and can be roughly characterized as potentiating the ‘fight or flight response’. In contrast, the parasympathetic nervous system enacts physiological and psychological changes to return the body to homeostasis after stress (Akselrod et al., 1981; Warner & Cox, 1962). Heart rate and skin conductivity are two of the more commonly used indices of ANS activity in studies testing associations between ANS activity and psychopathic traits. Consistent with their broader roles in response to stress and return to homeostasis, the sympathetic nervous system exerts an excitatory influence on heart rate while the parasympathetic nervous system exerts an inhibitory influence. In contrast, skin conductance is thought to vary with sympathetic nervous system activity but does not appear to be influenced by parasympathetic nervous system activity. Thus, heart rate indexes both parasympathetic and sympathetic activity while skin conductance only measures sympathetic nervous system activity.

Variation in associations between ANS indicators and psychopathy is evident in meta-analyses (de Looff et al., 2021; Lorber, 2004; Portnoy & Farrington, 2015). For example, Lorber (2004) found resting heart rate (RHR) and heart rate reactivity (HRR) were not associated with psychopathy (RHR d = 0.06, p > .05; HRR d = 0.06, p > .05), while resting skin conductance (RSC) and skin conductance reactivity (SCR) were (RSC d = -0.30, p < .05, SCR d = -0.31, p < .05). Later Portnoy and Farrington (2015) reported a negative association between RHR and psychopathy (d = -.19, p < .05) and recently de Looff et al. (2021) also found RHR was negatively associated with psychopathy (d = -.26, p < .05) but other indicators of ANS activity were not, including HRR (d = .03, p > .05), resting skin conductance level (RSCL; d = -.11, p > .05), and skin conductance level reactivity (SCLR; d = .12, p > .05).1

Experimental paradigms used to elicit ANS reactivity include the anticipation of noise or countdown task and the social stressor speech task (SSST). The countdown task is comprised of signaled and unsignaled trials. During signaled trials subjects are exposed to noise blasts after watching a countdown on a screen. During unsignaled trials, the noise blast occurs at the same time but there is no visual countdown. In the SSST subjects are given two minutes to prepare a two-minute speech about their biggest faults and weaknesses. After the preparation period the subjects then deliver their speech while being recorded. Studies employing the countdown task tend to show SCR during anticipation of noise blasts is negatively associated with psychopathy (Fung et al., 2005; MacDougal et al., 2019). There is also some evidence that this association may be specific to manipulative-deceitfulness (Wang et al., 2012).

In contrast, research testing associations between psychopathy factors and ANS reactivity to the SSST has found that SCLR was not related to global psychopathy scores or scores on either Factor 1 (callous interpersonal) or Factor 2 (antisocial lifestyle) psychopathy (Kavish et al., 2019). SCLR during the SSST is also unrelated to a direct measure of callous unemotional traits (Kavish et al., 2019; Portnoy et al. 2020). However, there is evidence for an association between increased SCLR during the SSST and the sensation seeking facet of Factor 2 psychopathy (Kavish et al., 2019). There is also considerable variability across experimental paradigms in associations between HR and psychopathic traits. Larger increases in heart rate during anticipation of noise blasts in the countdown task are associated with the callousness-disinhibition factor of psychopathy (Wang et al., 2012). In contrast, HRR during the SSST was not associated with callous unemotional traits or Factor 1 psychopathy (Kavish et al., 2019; Portnoy et al., 2020). While differences in associations between ANS activity and psychopathic traits in the research reviewed above may be attributable to differences in experimental paradigms, it is also possible that associations are influenced by variation across other methodological aspects of the studies including the measurement of psychopathy. For example, differences in SCR reactivity shortly after unsignaled noise blasts were negatively associated with callous-unemotional traits in the work of MacDougall et al. (2019) but not related to callousness-disinhibition in the work of Wang et al. (2012). This pattern of association underscores the need for systematic attention to the influence of differences in methodology on associations between ANS activity and psychopathic traits.

Dindo and Fowles (2011) offer what is to our knowledge the only direct investigation of the role of stimulus type in associations between SCL and psychopathy factors. All subjects in the study were exposed to four experimental paradigms. The countdown task and the social stressor were the third and fourth.2 SCL during an SSST was positively associated with Psychopathic Personality Inventory Factor 2 - Impulsive Antisociality (PPI-2; Lilienfeld & Andrews, 1996), while SCL in response to signaled noise blasts during the countdown task was negatively associated with PPI-1 - Fearless Dominance. These results provide an important contribution to our understanding of potential differences in associations between ANS activity and psychopathic traits across stress paradigms. However, it is possible that the strength of association between SCL and psychopathy factors during the SSST and countdown task was influenced by earlier exposure to other stressors during the experiment. Therefore, to further inform our understanding of the association between ANS activity and psychopathic traits we extend the work of Dindo and Fowles (2011) by randomly assigning subjects to either the countdown task or the SSST. We also explore the influence of the measurement on associations between ANS activity and psychopathy through the use of multiple measures of psychopathic traits.

2. Methods

2.1 Participants

Analyses were based on a convenience sample of undergraduate students recruited from criminology and criminal justice classes at a public university in the Midwest (n = 112). The University of Nebraska Medical Center Internal Review Board (IRB) approval was obtained prior to the study (IRB# 0042-21-FB). Measurements included a self-report survey and physiological data. Subjects that did not provide complete data for the psychopathic trait measures in the self-report survey were dropped from the analytical sample (n = 14). Six additional cases were excluded for either failure to complete the laboratory protocol, failure to report age, or data recording error. Finally, skin conductance exceeded the maximum measurable threshold allowed by the recording software for three participants. This resulted in an analytical sample of 92 participants for heart rate and 89 participants for skin conductance. Of the 92 participants, 71 (77%) identified as female and 21 (22%) identified as male. Participants averaged 21.54 years (SD = 3.24) of age and their self-reported race/ethnicity was 57.6% White, 23.9% Hispanic, 6.5% Black, 5.4% Asian or Pacific Islander, 4.3% Multiracial, 1% American Indian/Native American, and 1% Other.

2.2 Laboratory procedure

Upon arrival participants were seated and informed consent was affirmed. Participants then completed a self-report survey including psychopathic trait measures. While participants completed the survey a research associate randomized the participant into either the SSST or countdown task. After completion of the survey, sensors for ANS measurement were attached. Heart rate was measured with a NeuLog infrared LED transmitter and receiver. This device monitors heart rate between 0 – 240 beats per minute at 100 samples/second. Skin conductance was measured with a NeuLog galvanic skin response sensor with Velcro connectors, this device has the sensor amplitude at a range of 10 microSiemens at a sample rate of 100 samples/second. After the sensors were placed and checked, ANS recording was initiated as the participants watched a relaxing video (Coral Sea Dreaming, Small World Music Inc.) for 3 minutes in order to induce an accurate ANS baseline (de Wied et al., 2012; Piferi et al. 2000). After the conclusion of the baseline video the relevant experimental conditions were described to the participants.

Participants randomized into the SSST were informed that they had 2 minutes to prepare a 2-minute speech about their biggest faults and weaknesses. Participants were told their speech would be recorded and later evaluated. SSSTs have been shown to induce changes in ANS activity and hormones (testosterone and cortisol) associated with psychopathic traits and antisocial behaviors (Armstrong et al., 2019; Armstrong et al., 2022). At 1.5 minutes participants were informed they had 30 seconds of preparation time remaining. At the 2-minute mark the research associate appeared to turn on a video recording device and asked the participant to begin their speech before leaving the room. After a full two-minutes, the research associate reentered the room and notified the participant to stop delivering their speech. During a debrief subjects were informed that speeches were not actually recorded.

The countdown task followed the structure reported in earlier work on associations between ANS activity and psychopathic traits (Fung et al., 2005; MacDougall et al., 2019; Wang et al. 2012). Specifically, participants were instructed to observe a computer monitor while wearing headphones. They were then read the following prompt:

In this situation, you will see numbers counting down on the computer screen from 12-0. One number will appear every second. When you see the number 0, you will hear a loud noise for 1 second. Sometimes this loud noise will come on without any warning, however. There is nothing you need to do in the task apart from keeping your head as still as you can. Do you have any questions?

After any questions were answered a countdown task comprised of four 45-second trials began. All trials began with a 12-second rest period. In Trials 1 and 3 (signaled), the rest period was followed by a 12-second numeric countdown appearing on the computer screen. When the countdown reached 0, the participant experienced a 1-second 90 dB white noise blast. The trial then continued for 20-seconds during which reaction to the noise blast was captured. In Trials 2 and 4 (unsignaled), the 12-second resting period was followed by a 12-second anticipation period without a countdown, then a 1-second 90 dB noise blast, and a 20-second reactivity period.

3. Measures

3.1 Physiological arousal and reactivity

Visual inspection of HR and SCL values revealed substantial fluctuations in ANS activity during the first 10 seconds and last 30 seconds during the three minute presentation of Coral Sea Dreaming. Therefore, resting HR and resting SCL measures were quantified as the average of values that were recorded each second beginning 10 seconds after the start of Coral Sea Dreaming and concluding 30 seconds before the video was stopped. Descriptive statistics for ANS measures and psychopathic trait measures are presented in Table 1. HR reactivity (HRR) and SCL reactivity (SCLR) to the SSST were quantified with area under the curve with respect to increase (AUCi; Pruessner et al., 2003). AUCi is an aggregate measure of change that parses out initial levels and is often used in work exploring associations between ANS reactivity to psychosocial stress and traits and behaviors (e. g., Kavish et al., 2019; Rimmele et al., 2007, Romero-Martinez et al., 2013)

The formula for AUCi is:

Where ti is the interval of the time between measures and mi is the measurement itself. Following Kavish et al. (2019), AUCi for the SSST was estimated with ANS values gathered during the 2 minutes in which participants prepared their speech and 2 minutes of speech delivery.

Consistent with MacDougall et al. (2019) we model ANS response to the countdown task with measures of anticipatory HR and SCL change prior to the noise blast and change in HR and SCL in response to the noise blast. We also consider potential differences between anticipation and reaction to signaled and unsignaled noise blasts. Change in ANS activity during the anticipatory period was quantified as the difference between the mean of ANS activity during the 12 second anticipatory period before the noise blast and the mean of ANS activity for the 5 seconds before the beginning of the anticipatory period. Reactivity to the noise blast was quantified as the difference between the mean of ANS activity during the first 12 seconds after the noise blast and the mean of ANS activity in the 5 seconds before the noise blast. ANS measures for the signaled trials (trials 1 & 3) were averaged, as were ANS measures for the unsignaled trials (trials 2 & 4). Descriptive statistics for all measures are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics

M

SD

Min

Max

Autonomic Nervous System Measures

At Rest

HR

72.14

14.20

43.52

118.42

SCL

1.64

1.15

0.15

4.87

SSST

HRR

518.38

2080.94

-4320.74

4673.52

SCLR

410.34

257.18

-0.69

1058.90

Countdown Signaled

HRCSA

-0.10

5.62

-19.80

14.80

HRCSR

-1.70

6.25

-23.08

9.54

SCLCSA

0.08

0.10

-0.04

0.49

SCLCSR

0.23

0.32

-0.05

1.46

Countdown Unsignaled

HRCUA

-0.36

4.06

-11.73

11.55

HRCUR

-1.00

4.91

-11.57

9.47

SCLCUA

0.00

0.07

-0.21

0.30

SCLCUR

0.19

0.21

-0.10

0.94

Psychopathic Trait Measures

SRP

Total

141.55

22.90

74

195

Interpersonal Manipulation

37.68

7.80

18

57

Callous Affect

36.94

7.56

20

57

Erratic Lifestyle

42.16

8.89

16

61

Anti-Social Behavior

24.76

6.94

16

42

ICU

Total

42.71

7.12

30

57

Uncaring

14.31

3.67

8

24

Unemotional

12.86

3.91

5

20

LSRP

Total

46.53

7.60

27

61

Factor 1

28.21

5.23

18

38

Factor 2

18.31

3.56

9

27

SSS-V

Total

17.11

5.51

2

29

Disinhibition

3.97

2.36

0

9

Thrill seeking

6.08

2.88

0

10

Note: HR = Heart Rate (bpm), SCL = Skin Conductance Level (microsiemens), SSST = Social Stressor Speech Task; HRCSA = Heart Rate Change Signaled Trial Anticipatory, HRCSR = Heart Rate Change Signaled Trial Reactivity to Noise Blast, SCLCSA = Skin Conductance Level Change Signaled Trial Anticipatory, SCLCSR = Skin Conductance Level Change Signaled Trial Reactivity to Noise Blast, HRCSU =Heart Rate Change Unsignaled Trial Anticipatory, HRCSU = Heart Rate Change Unsignaled Trial Reactivity to Noise Blast, SCLCSU = Skin Conductance Level Change Unsignaled Trial Anticipatory, SCLCSU = Skin Conductance Level Change Unsignaled Trial Reactivity to Noise Blast, SRP = Self-Report Psychopathy scale, ICU - Inventory of Callous Unemotional Traits, LSRP = Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy scale, SSS = Sensation Seeking Scale.

Psychopathic traits were captured with direct measures of psychopathy and with measures of traits subsumed in definitions of psychopathy including the Self-Report Psychopathy Scale-III (SRP-III; Paulhus et al., 2016), the Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP; Levenson et al., 1995), the Inventory of Callous-Unemotional traits (ICU; Frick, 2004), and the Sensation Seeking Scale – Form V (SSS-V; Zuckerman et al., 1978).3

3.2 Self-Report Psychopathy Scale-III

The Self-Report Psychopathy Scale-III (SRP-III; Paulhus et al., 2016) is a self-report inventory designed to measure psychopathic traits in community samples. The SRP-III captures indicators of psychopathy across four factors (16-items each): Interpersonal Manipulation (IPM), Callous Affect (CA), Erratic Lifestyle (ELS), and Antisocial Behavior (ASB). Prior work has verified the factor structure and validity of the SRP-III (Gordts et al., 2017; Mahmut et al., 2011; Neal & Sellbom, 2012; Vitacco et al., 2014). Item responses were recorded on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = disagree strongly to 5 = agree strongly). The SRP-III total score (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.88), IPM (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.79), CA (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.75), ELS (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.78) and ASB (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.71) demonstrated adequate to good internal consistency. Scale scores for all self-report trait measures were estimated as the sum of item scores.

3.3 Inventory of Callous-Unemotional Traits

The Inventory of Callous-Unemotional traits (ICU; Frick, 2004) is a 24-item self-report inventory that measures the presence of callous unemotional traits. Studies commonly disaggregate ICU items into 3 factors: Callousness (11 items), Uncaring (8 items), and Unemotional (5 items) (Kimonis et al., 2013; Kimonis et al., 2008). Item responses were recorded on a 4-point Likert scale (0 = not true at all to 3 = definitely true). The ICU total scale (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.80) and the Uncaring (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.77) and Unemotional (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.88) subscales demonstrated adequate to good internal consistency. The Callousness subscale was omitted from analyses due to poor internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.39).

3.4 Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy scale

The Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy Scale (LSRP; Levenson et al., 1995) is a 26-item inventory of psychopathic traits including items capturing egocentricity, callousness, impulsivity and antisocial behavior. Item responses are recorded on a four-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 4 = strongly agree). Analyses of the psychometric properties of LSRP items have provided support for both a two-factor and a three-factor model of psychopathy (Brinkley et al., 2008; Sellbom, 2011). Here we use the two-factor model in light of equivocal for evidence for the convergent and discriminant validity of the Callousness factor from the three-factor model (Salekin et al., 2014). In the two-factor model, Factor 1 is measured with 16 items that capture the callous/manipulative interpersonal style that underpins primary psychopathy (Karpman, 1948), and Factor 2 is measured with 10 items indicating the lack of impulse control and antisocial behavior that reflect secondary psychopathy. The internal consistencies of items in the total LSRP scale (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.82) and items in the Factor 1 subscale (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.80) were good. However, the internal consistency of items in Factor 2 was low (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.66).4

3.5 Sensation Seeking Scale – Form V

The Sensation Seeking Scale – Form V (SSS-V; Zuckerman et al., 1978) is a 40-item, forced-choice self-report scale that examines traits associated with sensation seeking behaviors. Items in the SSS-V measure different dimensions of sensation seeking including Boredom, Disinhibition, Experience Seeking, and Thrill Seeking. Analyses of the psychometric properties of items in the SSS_V indicated the SSS-V total scale (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.75) and Thrill and Adventure Seeking scale (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.80) demonstrated adequate internal consistency. The internal consistency of the disinhibition (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.67) was low but the scale was retained for analyses, while Boredom (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.48) and Experience Seeking (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.42) demonstrated poor internal consistency and were dropped.

3.6 Covariates

Analyses also included measures of age, race, and sex. Age was quantified with age in years at the time of survey. Race (0 = Nonwhite, 1 = White) and sex (0 = male, 1 = female) were represented with dichotomous indicators.

3.7. Statistical Analysis

The analysis was conducted using R version 4.4.0. Partial correlations between ANS activity and psychopathic traits were estimated using the {ppcor} package (Kim, 2015). Partial correlations were used to control for the potential confounding effects of age, race, and sex on associations between ANS activity and psychopathy. All assumptions for the partial correlations were checked before proceeding with the analysis.

4. Results

Changes in heart rate and skin conductivity during the SSST and Countdown tasks were visualized using the {tidyverse}, {ggtext}, {patchwork}, and {ggrepel} packages in R version 4.4.0 (Pedersen, 2024; Slowikowski, 2024; Wickham et al., 2019; Wilke & Wiernik, 2022). The resulting graphs are presented in Figures 1 and 2. These figures show differences in trends across ANS measures and across stressor. For example, in the upper panel of Figure 1 values for HR show considerable variation and overall decreases during the SSST. In contrast, values for SC in the lower panel of Figure 1 show less variability and an overall increase. The increased variability in HR may be attributable to the joint influence of the PNS and SNS on HR. The influence of the PNS on heart rate variability is much faster (≤ 1 s) than that of the SNS (≥ 5 s) (Nunan et al., 2010). In addition, initial decreases in HR shown in the top panel of Figure 1 parallel decreases in heart rate variability stemming from PNS activity found during the preparation phase of the Trier Social Stress Test (Glier et al., 2022). A contrast of the upper and lower panels of Figure 2 shows differences in habituation during the countdown task. HR rate does not accelerate during the unsignaled trials of the countdown task, but SC does.

Figure 1. ANS Activity During the SSST

Figure 2. ANS Activity During the Countdown Task.

Correlations between ANS activity both at rest and in response to the SSST with psychopathic traits are presented in Table 2. HR at rest was not associated with any of the psychopathic trait measures. SCL at rest had a negative association with SRP Erratic Lifestyle subscale and SSS-V total scale scores. HRR during the SSST was not associated with any of the psychopathic trait measures. SCLR response was negatively associated with SRP-Callous Affect subscale scores.

Table 2. Partial Correlations between ANS Activity at Rest and during the SSST and Psychopathic Traits

At Rest

SSST

HR

(n=92)

SCL

(n=89)

HRR

(n=43)

SCLR

(n=41)

SRP total

-0.02

-0.17

0.13

-0.20

Interpersonal Manipulation

0.00

0.00

0.16

-0.26

Callous Affect

0.06

-0.13

0.14

-0.33*

Erratic Lifestyle

-0.06

-0.31**

-0.04

-0.01

Anti-Social Behavior

0.00

0.00

0.12

0.05

ICU total

0.07

0.00

-0.21

-0.12

Uncaring

0.05

0.00

-0.23

-0.18

Unemotional

0.03

0.13

-0.08

-0.09

LSRP total

0.03

-0.11

-0.07

-0.03

Factor 1

0.01

-0.08

-0.03

Factor 2

-0.02

-0.15

-0.11

0.04

SSS-V total

-0.08

-0.23*

-0.08

-0.07

Disinhibition

0.06

-0.10

-0.11

-0.26

Thrill seeking

-0.13

-0.05

0.00

0.09

Note: SSST = Social Stressor Speech Task; HR = Heart Rate (bpm), SCL = Skin Conductance Level (microsiemens), HRR = Heart Rate Reactivity, SCLR = Skin Conductance Level Reactivity, SRP = Self-Report Psychopathy scale, ICU - Inventory of Callous Unemotional Traits, LSRP = Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy scale, SSS = Sensation Seeking Scale; * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01.

Associations between ANS activity during the countdown task and psychopathic traits are presented in Table 3. During signaled trials there were negative associations between change in ANS activity in anticipation of noise blasts and psychopathic traits including a negative association between change in heart rate in anticipation of signaled noise blast (HRCSA) and ICU Unemotional subscale scores and a negative association between change in skin conductance in anticipation of signaled noise blasts (SCLCSA) and SRP Interpersonal Manipulation subscale scores. Measures of ANS change after signaled noise blasts were not associated with psychopathic traits during signaled trials. During unsignaled countdown task trials changes in ANS activity in anticipation of noise blasts were not associated with psychopathic traits for either HR or SC. Change in HR activity after noise blasts during unsignaled trials (HRCUR) was associated with SRP Erratic Lifestyle subscale scores and LSRP Factor 2 subscales scores. Changes in SC after noise blasts during unsignaled trials (SCLCUR) were not associated with psychopathic traits.

Table 3. Partial Correlations between ANS Activity during the Countdown Task and Psychopathic Traits

Signaled Trials

Unsignaled Trials

HRCSA (n=49)

HRCSR (n=49)

SCLCSA

(n=48)

SCLCSR

(n=48)

HRCUA

(n=49)

HRCUR

(n=49)

SCLCUA

(n=48)

SCLCUR

(n=48)

SRP total

-0.14

-0.05

-0.11

-0.24

0.12

-0.19

0.01

-0.23

Interpersonal Manipulation

-0.19

-0.11

-0.29*

-0.19

-0.03

-0.12

-0.01

-0.12

Callous Affect

-0.15

-0.15

0.04

-0.06

0.26

-0.09

-0.05

-0.02

Erratic Lifestyle

-0.03

-0.02

-0.09

-0.24

0.11

-0.30*

0.05

-0.26

Anti-Social Behavior

-0.22

0.13

0.13

-0.14

0.09

-0.05

-0.08

-0.25

ICU total

-0.27

-0.19

-0.12

-0.08

0.05

-0.12

-0.09

-0.11

Uncaring

-0.13

0.01

-0.10

-0.06

-0.12

-0.21

0.00

-0.12

Unemotional

-0.37*

-0.06

-0.08

0.01

0.17

-0.06

-0.01

0.01

LSRP total

-0.11

-0.02

-0.14

-0.15

-0.04

-0.16

-0.19

-0.09

Factor 1

-0.19

0.01

-0.09

0.00

-0.10

0.08

-0.13

0.01

Factor 2

-0.01

-0.01

-0.16

-0.24

-0.05

-0.32*

-0.05

-0.19

SSS-V total

-0.03

0.00

-0.13

-0.06

0.08

0.04

0.01

0.03

Disinhibition

0.01

0.07

0.00

0.08

0.01

0.08

-0.07

0.22

Thrill seeking

0.02

0.06

-0.03

0.03

0.02

-0.03

0.07

0.16

Note: HRCSA = Heart Rate Change Signaled Trial Anticipatory, HRCSR = Heart Rate Change Signaled Trial Reactivity to Noise Blast, SCLCSA

= Skin Conductance Level Change Signaled Trial Anticipatory, SCLCSR = Skin Conductance Level Change Signaled Trial Reactivity to Noise Blast, HRCUA =Heart Rate Change Unsignaled Trial Anticipatory, HRCUR = Heart Rate Change Unsignaled Trial Reactivity to Noise Blast, SCLCSU = Skin Conductance Level Change Unsignaled Trial Anticipatory, SCLCSU = Skin Conductance Level Change Unsignaled Trial Reactivity to Noise Blast, SRP = Self-Report Psychopathy scale, ICU - Inventory of Callous Unemotional Traits, LSRP = Levenson Self-Report Psychopathy scale, SSS = Sensation Seeking Scale; * p < 0.05.

5. Discussion

The current study extended the limited literature considering differences in associations between ANS activity and psychopathy across stressor type and psychopathy measures (Dindo and Fowles, 2011). Analyses explored associations between ANS activity and a battery of psychopathic trait measures among study participants randomized into either the SSST or the countdown task. Results revealed a set of negative associations between ANS measures and psychopathic traits that varied considerably across stressor type, type of ANS activity, and measure of psychopathy.

The current analyses found SCLR during the SSST was negatively associated with SRP Callous Affect. This direction of association is opposite that found in earlier work that reported changes in SC activity during the SSST were positively associated with Factor 2 psychopathy (Dindo & Fowles, 2011; Kavish et al., 2019). Dindo and Fowles (2011) suggest that the positive association between SCLR and PPI 2 reported in their study may indicate emotional dysregulation and increased negative emotionality through an elevated socio-emotional stress response. This along with the negative association between the SCRL and SRP Callous Affect reported here points to a potentially bifurcated pattern of association between SC changes during the SSST and psychopathic traits. In this bifurcated pattern of association, increased SCLR during the SSST indicates risk for impulsive and sensation seeking antisocial behavior through emotional dysregulation, while decreased SCLR indicates increased risk for callousness through SC hypoactivity during the stress response.

Change in both HR (HRCSA) and SCL (SCLCSA) in anticipation of signaled noise blasts during the countdown task were negatively associated with ICU Unemotional subscale scores and SRP Interpersonal Manipulation subscale scores respectively. The negative association between SCLCSA and SRP Interpersonal Manipulation scores is consistent with earlier work showing a relationship between reduced SC activity during the anticipatory phase of the countdown for signaled noise blasts and aspects of Factor 1 psychopathy including fearless dominance PPI-1 (Dindo & Fowles, 2011) and manipulative/deceitfulness (Childhood Psychopathy Scale; Lynam, 1997) (Wang et al., 2012). The negative association between change in SC in anticipation of signaled noise blasts and psychopathic traits is present when skin conductance is quantified with mean skin conductance values (current results and Dindo & Fowles, 2011) and when it is quantified with change in skin conductance responses of a given amplitude (Wang et al., 2012). There is some suggestion that the association between change in SC in anticipation of signaled noise blasts and psychopathic traits is specific to certain aspects of Factor 1 psychopathy. The relationship between changes in SC in anticipation of signaled noise blasts and psychopathic traits found in the current work did not extend to other facets of Factor 1 including callous unemotional traits and egocentricity. The negative association between HRCSA and the ICU unemotional subscale reported here is directionally inconsistent with positive associations between anticipation of signaled noise blasts and callousness-disinhibition reported by Wang et al. (2012). This inconsistency may be explained by the conceptualization and measurement of psychopathy. Callousness-disinhibition includes trait and behavioral indicators of impulsive antisocial behaviors while ICU unemotional focuses more directly on hypo-emotionality. Negative associations between changes in HR before signaled noise blasts may be specific to measures that center on a lack of affect.

The current study also found evidence for a negative relationship between HR response after noise blasts during unsignaled countdown task trials (HRCUR) and both SRP Erratic Lifestyle and LSRP Factor 2, but no association between SC response to unsignaled noise blasts (SCLCUA). Earlier work in this area has not reported associations between change in HR after signaled noise blasts and psychopathic traits (MacDougall, 2019; Wang et al., 2012). While these associations reported here are interesting, the lack of consistency across studies calls into question their replicability and the centrality of this evidence for speculation regarding the nature of the association between ANS activity and psychopathic traits.

Results reported here included a negative and statistically significant association between SCL at rest and both SRP Erratic Lifestyle scores and SSS-V total scores. This result joins prior work suggesting resting SCL is associated with psychopathic traits that capture impulsive and sensation seeking antisocial behavior, but not the callous egocentricity that is the hallmark of psychopathy (Gatzke-Kopp et al., 2002; Kavish et al, 2019; Plouffe & Stelmack, 1986). The lack of association between HR at rest and aspects of Factor 2 psychopathy including impulsive and risk seeking antisocial behavior was surprising given that the negative association between HR at rest and antisocial behavior is well documented (de Loof et al., 2021) and includes methodologically sound studies showing that this association at least partially explained by variation in sensation seeking (Portnoy et al., 2014; Sijtsema et al., 2010).

As indicated above, the results of studies of the association between ANS activity and psychopathic traits vary considerably but some consistencies emerge. While null findings predominate there is growing evidence for an association between change in SC in response to signaled noise blasts and traits reflecting aspects of Factor 1 psychopathy including fearless dominance (Dindo & Fowles, 2011), manipulative/deceitfulness (Wang et al., 2012), and interpersonal manipulation (current work). Negative associations between change in SC in anticipation of signaled noise blasts and psychopathic traits are consistent with the suggestion that deficient fear reactivity leads to increased risk for psychopathy through reduced inhibition and fear conditioning deficits (Lykken, 1957, Raine, 1993). Wang et al. (2012) suggest that Patrick et al.’s (2009) triarchic model allows that manipulative deceitfulness may be in part a manifestation of fearlessness noting that the meanness construct in the triarchic model encompasses callous unemotional traits and is thought to reflect fearlessness and disinhibition. Beyond associations between change in SC in anticipation of signaled noise blasts and aspects of Factor 1 psychopathy there is also an emerging consistency across studies that SCL at rest is associated with psychopathic traits reflect impulsive and sensation seeking antisocial behavior (Gatzke-Kopp et al., 2002; Kavish et al, 2019; Plouffe & Stelmack, 1986). This association may be underpinned by a tendency towards sensation seeking stemming from low autonomic arousal rather than fearlessness. Low arousal theory suggests that ANS hypo arousal is an uncomfortable psychophysiological state (Quay, 1965; Raine, 2002) which may lead to increased risk for simulating behaviors.

The implications of the current work for our understanding of associations between ANS activity and psychopathic traits should be conditioned by consideration of certain aspects of the study’s methodology. While the current work is the first to use a randomized design to explore differences in associations between ANS activity and psychopathic traits across stressors, this methodology contributed to a relatively small overall sample size and even smaller within condition sample sizes. The study’s small sample size increases the susceptibility to Type I error. Risk for Type I error was also increased through multiple comparisons. A formal correction for multiple comparisons based on the current studies 12 different measures of ANS activity and 10 different measures of psychopathic traits would result in a corrected threshold for statistical significance of p < 0.0004. None of the associations reported in our study would meet this corrected threshold. However, instead of entirely discounting associations that meet the traditional threshold for statistical significance (p < .05) it may be more fruitful to weigh results according to consistency or lack thereof with prior research. Applied to the results presented here this would suggest that we give weight to associations between SCL at rest and SRP Erratic lifestyle/SSS-V total and associations between change in SCL in anticipation of signaled noise blasts and SRP Interpersonal Manipulation. Other statistically significant relationships should be considered preliminary and candidates for replication. The implications of the current results are also conditioned by the use of a sample of University students. Prisoners, community adults, university students, and adolescents have different latent psychopathy profiles (Boduszek et al., 2021). Therefore, evidence for associations between ANS activity and psychopathic traits found here may not generalize to different age groups or forensic/at-risk samples. However, with the current results, the negative association between change in SCL in anticipation of signaled noise blasts and psychopathic traits has been found in community and forensic samples (Dindo & Fowles, 2011; Wang et al., 2012). Despite methodological caveats the current study contributes to growing evidence that an accurate characterization of associations between ANS reactivity and risk for psychopathic traits will require attention to differences in experimental stimuli, the measure of ANS activity itself, and the different conceptualizations of psychopathy embodied in measures.

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